Although the twentieth century, and particularly the times between and after the two world wars, had been very good to science, it was not so good to the letters. George Orwell wrote ``The literature of liberalism is coming to an end. As for the writer, he is ...merely an anachronism, a hangover from the Bourgeois age, ...from now onwards the all important fact for the creative writer is going to be that this is not a writer's world.''1 Overstated perhaps, but it does convey the widely held sentiment that it was a better time to start a scientific career than a literary one.2
For the most part Snow's essay on the `Two Cultures' was directed at the `other culture' - the older, established culture of the literary intellectual. Just look at the tests he applies. It is hard to imagine, even now, that any native English speaking scientist could have made it through secondary school without having read at least one play of Shakespeare (and Shaw, and Ibsen, and Chekhov, ...); but it is still debatable whether a non-scientist should know the second law of thermodynamics (at least as The Second Law of Thermodynamics). A somewhat comparable literary challenge might be having read and appreciated Horace or Cicero.
Perhaps the most telling sign of this one-sidedness is that scientists, for the most part, seem to agree with Snow's assessment while humanists have been quite dismissive of Snow's `superficial' and even `silly' dichotomy.3 Snow's `scientific culture', feeling its youthful strength and insecurity, wants recognition from the established `intellectuals'. To me, this seems to be more symptomatic of a shift than of a separation.
In his rebuttal to critics, written four years after the Rede lecture, Snow struggles to defend his choice of the word culture and of the number two. Parenthetically he remarks that ``No one, I think, has yet complained about the definite article.''
The choice of `culture' is defended by appealing to a dictionary definition meaning ``intellectual development, development of the mind'' and also to the anthropological distinction made between living groups of people. Were he to adopt a definition from Coleridge of culture being those `qualities and faculties which characterise our humanity', Snow admits that neither the literary nor the scientific constitute cultures but rather sub-cultures. In this light, the cultural shift is one of emphasis. In Snow's view, too long has our culture nurtured the literary and starved the scientific. Snow is interested in having the balance redressed.
Accepting Snow's choice of the word culture, it is easy to see that the number two could be many more. Every specialization could be called a culture. Indeed, in the forty years that has passed since the Rede lecture, sufficient has been written on Snow's `Two Cultures' that it might legitimately constitute a specialization of its own - a humbling thought for those of us here who have been asked to address the matter for the first time.
Snow defends the number `two' on grounds of simplicity - it crystallizes the two extremes for contrast. It is interesting that Snow briefly considers three by the possible separation of technology from science. He dismisses it because he has observed that the technologist, when designing a new technology, goes through much the same experience as a scientist in designing an experiment. To this I feel compelled to add the words of the professional chemist, Primo Levi, whose fame is established as a writer. They should evoke kindred feelings from any theoretician:
...I now felt in the writing a complex, intense, and new pleasure, similar to that I felt as a student when penetrating the solemn order of differential calculus. It was exalting to search and find, or create, the right word, that is, commensurate, concise, and strong; to dredge up events from my memory and describe them with the greatest rigour and the least clutter.''A more understandable justification would be that technology has so long been tied up with science that its separation seems unnatural to Snow.From The Periodic Table, 1975, p. 160.
One thing that the number two has resulted in is an entire cottage industry devoted to finding number three. Snow himself started this. Although `technology' was rejected, in his rebuttal to his critics he did introduce what he saw to be the beginnings of a third culture. This third culture was being formed by the social sciences, in Snow's words those
``...intellectual persons in a variety of fields - social history, sociology, demography, political science, economics, government (in the American sense), psychology, medicine, and social arts such as architecture. ...All of them are concerned with how human beings are living or have lived - and concerned, not in terms of legend, but of fact.page 70 of The Two Cultures second edition.
Allan Bloom, in his 1987 book The Closing of the American Mind, identifies the big three disciplines which ``rule the academic roost and determine what is knowledge'' (p. 356). These are the natural sciences, which are doing well, the social sciences which are more robust being more in harmony with the natural sciences although in Bloom's opinion they only succeed in ``aping ...the methods of natural science'' (p. 358), and the humanities which are languishing having decided ``to proudly set up shop next door'' rather than to ``humbly find a place at [the] court'' of natural science (p. 358). The shift from Snow's view of the cultural problems to Bloom's is staggering.
Snow thought that when this third culture came into existence it would serve to ease communication between the two cultures. This was because this third culture would have to ``be on speaking terms with the scientific one ...just to do its job.'' Perhaps it has but, if Bloom is correct, the communication sadly ended there.
More recently, John Brockman and others have seized on the communication between science and others as the hallmark of the third culture. His third culture consists of scientific thinkers who are able to communicate directly with the lay public. These include well known scientists like Richard Dawkins, Stephen Jay Gould, and Roger Penrose, and well known computer scientists like Daniel Hillis and Marvin Minsky.
The primary medium for discourse seems to be the internet where articles and follow up commentary are posted to open discussion groups. The principal web site is www.edge.org/3rd_culture. Whereas early scientists, at least as early as Archimedes, exchanged their ideas in letters written to other scientists, challenging them to think on them, this third culture purports to replicate the exchange but with a much larger collection of thinkers (scientists and the lay alike). The writers and commentators are the third culture, a culture of individuals whose ideas are reviewed by the public rather than by more traditional (and likely more conservative) peer system. Brockman writes
``Unlike previous intellectual pursuits, the achievements of the third culture are not the marginal disputes of a quarrelsome mandarin class: They will affect the lives of everybody on the planet.''Heady stuff. Absent the internet, and so the immediacy of discussion, and this is just a bunch of scientists, albeit articulate ones, trying to communicate to the lay public. Nothing new to that.
In fact Snow had been quick in his rebuttal to point out the existence of such writers as J. Bronowski, G.H. Hardy, and A.N. Whitehead who in ``some of the most beautiful prose of our time'' (p. 63) wrote directly for public consumption. But this not a third culture in Snow's view, but simply additional evidence that science was deserving of the word `culture'.
Scientists, curiously, have often not been kind to other scientists writing for the lay public, particularly if it is found to be promoting a pet theory. An early example is Descartes's biting review of Galileo's famous book, the ``Two New Sciences'':
``... his fashion of writing in dialogues, where he introduces three persons who do nothing but exalt each of his inventions in turn, greatly assists in [over]pricing his merchandise.''One is reminded of the current and much more public disagreement between Gould and Dawkins where one worries publicly that the other writes perhaps too well.In a letter to the great experimental scientist Marin Mersenne (1588-1647), dated 11 October 1638
A more interesting, and to me much more plausible, candidate for a third culture is the one rejected by Snow, namely, technology. Not technology as Snow understood it in 1963. Far too much has changed since. And not that of the specialized technology expressly designed to address scientific questions. The critical technology here is the general purpose computer which now appears in schools and homes throughout every industrial society.
The ubiquity of this extremely malleable technology together with the instantaneous worldwide communication between its users has enabled the growth of what Kevin Kelly, the executive editor of Wired magazine, has called the `nerd culture'.
Kelly coined the term last year in an essay in Science. There he described the nerd culture as an outgrowth of science but one which is quite separate from Snow's two cultures.
The culture of science, so long in the shadow of the culture of art, now has another orientation to contend with, one grown from its own rib.If Kelly is right, our culture is shifting in an important way again. This time in a direction which might affect science more than the humanities.